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People's Republic of China
中华人民共和国
[a]Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó
FlagEmblemAnthem: "
March of the Volunteers"(义勇军进行曲)
CapitalBeijing39°55′N 116°23′E / 39.917°N 116.383°E / 39.917; 116.383Largest cityShanghaiOfficial languagesStandard Mandarin (spoken)
[1]Simplified Chinese (written)
[1]Recognised regional languagesSee
Languages of China[b]National languageStandard Mandarin[2] (spoken)
Simplified Chinese (written)
Ethnic groups91.9%
Han, 1.30%
Zhuang, 0.86%
Manchu, 0.79%
Uyghur, 0.79%
Hui, 0.72%
Miao, 0.65%
Yi, 0.62%
Tujia, 0.47%
Mongols, 0.44%
Tibetan people, 0.26%
Buyei, 0.15%
Korean, 1.05% other(See:
List of ethnic groups in China)
DemonymChineseGovernmentSocialist state,
[3]Single-party communist state -
PresidentHu Jintao -
PremierWen Jiabao -
Chairman of NPCSCWu Bangguo -
Chairman of CPPCCJia QinglinLegislatureNational People's CongressEstablishment -
People's Republic of China proclaimed.
1 October 1949
Area -
Total
9,640,821 km2 [d] or 9,671,018 km2
[d](
3rd/4th)3,704,427
sq mi -
Water (
%)
2.8
[c]Population -
2007 estimate
1,321,851,888
[c] (
1st)
-
2000 census
1,242,612,226
-
Density140/km2 (
53rd)363/sq mi
GDP (
PPP)
2008 estimate
-
Total
$7.89 trillion
[4] (
2nd)
-
Per capita$5,943
[4] (
97th)
GDP (nominal)
2008 estimate
-
Total
$4.222 trillion
[5][4] (
3rd)
-
Per capita$3,180
[4] (
104th)
Gini (2007)
47.0
[6]HDI (2006)
▲ 0.762 (medium) (
94th)
CurrencyYuan[c] (
CNY)
Time zoneChina Standard Time (
UTC+8)
Date formatsyyyy-mm-ddor yyyy年m月d日(
CE;
CE+2697)
Drives on theright, except for
Hong Kong &
MacauInternet TLD.cn[c]Calling code+86[c]a.
^ See also
Names of China.
b.
^ There are also many other official languages at sub-national levels including
English,
Portuguese,
Zhuang,
Uyghur,
Mongolian,
Tibetan, etc.
c.
^ Information for mainland China only. The
Special Administrative Regions of the PRC:
Hong Kong,
Macau are excluded. In addition, the territories under the jurisdiction of the
Republic of China, commonly known as
Taiwan, are also excluded.
d.
^ 9,598,086 km2 Excludes all disputed territories.9,640,821 km2 Includes PRC-administered area (
Aksai Chin and
Trans-Karakoram Tract, both territories claimed by India), Taiwan is not included.
China Daily websiteThe People's Republic of China (PRC) (
simplified Chinese:
中华人民共和国;
traditional Chinese:
中華人民共和國;
pinyin: Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó
listen (
help·
info)), commonly known as China or
mainland China, is the largest
country in
East Asia and the
most populous in the world with over 1.28 billion people, approximately a fifth of the world's population. It is a
socialist republic ruled by the
Communist Party of China under a
single-party system and has jurisdiction over twenty-two
provinces, five
autonomous regions, four
municipalities, and two largely self-governing
Special Administrative Regions. China's capital is
Beijing.
At 9.6 million square kilometres, the People's Republic of China is the world's
third or fourth largest country by total area,
[7] and second largest by land area.
[8] Its landscape is diverse with
forest steppes and
deserts (the
Gobi and
Taklamakan) in the dry north near
Mongolia and Russia's
Siberia, and
subtropical forests in the wet south close to
Vietnam,
Laos, and
Myanmar. The terrain in the west is rugged and
high altitude, with the
Himalayas and the
Tian Shan mountain ranges forming China's natural borders with
India and
Central Asia. In contrast, China's eastern seaboard is low-lying and has a 14,500-kilometre long coastline bounded on the southeast by the
South China Sea and on the east by the
East China Sea beyond which lies
Korea and
Japan.
Ancient Chinese civilization—one of the world's earliest—flourished in the fertile basin of the
Yellow River which flows through the
North China Plain. For 4,000 years, China's political system was based on hereditary monarchies (also known as dynasties). The first of these dynasties was the
Xia but it was later the
Qin Dynasty who first unified China in 221 BC. The last dynasty, the
Qing, ended in 1911 with the founding of the
Republic of China (ROC) by the Nationalist
Kuomintang (KMT). The first half of the 20th century saw China plunged into a period of
disunity and civil wars that divided the country into two main political camps – the Kuomintang (KMT) and the
Communists. Major hostilities ended in 1949, when the People's Republic of China (PRC) was established in
mainland China by the victorious Communists. The KMT-led Republic of China government retreated to
Taipei, its jurisdiction now limited to
Taiwan and several outlying islands. As of today, the PRC is still involved in disputes with the ROC over issues of sovereignty and the
political status of Taiwan.
China's importance
[9][10] in the world today is reflected through its role as the world's
third largest economy nominally (or
second largest by
PPP) and a
permanent member of the
UN Security Council as well as being a member of several other multilateral organizations including the
WTO,
APEC,
East Asia Summit, and
Shanghai Cooperation Organization. In addition, it is a
nuclear state and has the world's
largest standing army with the
second largest defense budget. Since the introduction of market-based economic reforms in 1978, China has become one of the world's
fastest growing economies[11] and the world's
second largest exporter and the
third largest importer of goods. Rapid industrialization has reduced its poverty rate from 53% in 1981 to 8% in 2001.
[12] However, the PRC is now faced with a number of other problems including a rapidly aging population due to the
one-child policy,
[13] a widening rural-urban income gap, and environmental degradation.
[14][15]Contents[
hide]
1 History2 Politics2.1 Foreign relations2.2 Population policy2.3 Civil rights3 Administrative divisions4 Geography and climate5 Military6 Economy7 Science and technology8 Transportation9 Demographics9.1 The gender imbalance problem9.2 Largest cities10 Education11 Public health12 Religion13 Culture13.1 Sports and recreation14 See also15 References16 Further reading17 External links//
[
edit] History
Main articles:
History of China and
History of the People's Republic of ChinaMao Zedong proclaiming the establishment of the People's Republic in 1949.
Major combat in the
Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the Communist Party of China in control of the mainland, and the
Kuomintang (KMT) retreating to
Taiwan. On 1 October 1949,
Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China.
[16] Red China was a frequent appellation for the PRC (generally within the
Western Bloc) used from the time of Communist ascendance until the mid-late 1970s with the
improvement of relations between China and the West.
[17]Following a series of dramatic economic failures caused by the
Great Leap Forward, Mao stepped down from his position as chairman in 1959, with
Liu Shaoqi as successor. Mao still had much influence over the Party, but was removed from day-to-day management of economic affairs, which came under the control of Liu Shaoqi and
Deng Xiaoping.
In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the
Cultural Revolution, which would last until Mao's death a decade later. The Cultural Revolution, motivated by power struggles within the Party and a fear of the
Soviet Union, led to a major upheaval in Chinese society. In 1972, at the peak of the
Sino-Soviet split, Mao and
Zhou Enlai met
Richard Nixon in Beijing to establish relations with the United States. In the same year, the PRC was admitted to the
United Nations, replacing the
Republic of China for China's membership of the
United Nations, and permanent membership of the
Security Council.
After Mao's death in 1976 and the arrest of the
Gang of Four, blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping quickly wrested power from Mao's anointed successor
Hua Guofeng. Although Deng never became the head of the Party or State himself, his influence within the Party led the country to economic reforms of significant magnitude. The Communist Party subsequently loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives and the
communes were disbanded with many peasants receiving multiple land leases, which greatly increased incentives and agricultural production. This turn of events marked China's transition from a planned economy to a
mixed economy with an increasingly open market environment, a system termed by some
[18] "
market socialism". The PRC adopted its current
constitution on 4 December 1982.
In 1989, the death of pro-reform official,
Hu Yaobang, helped to spark the
Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, during which students and others campaigned for several months for more
democratic rights and
freedom of speech. However, they were eventually put down on 4 June when
PLA troops and vehicles entered and forcibly cleared the square, resulting in numerous casualties. This event was widely reported and
famously videotaped, which brought worldwide condemnation and sanctions against the government.
President
Jiang Zemin and Premier
Zhu Rongji, both former mayors of
Shanghai, led post-Tiananmen PRC in the 1990s. Under Jiang Zemin's ten years of administration, the PRC's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual
GDP growth rate of 11.2%.
[19][20] The country formally joined the
World Trade Organization in 2001.
Although the PRC needs economic growth to spur its development, the government has begun to worry that rapid economic growth has negatively impacted the country's resources and environment. Another concern is that certain sectors of society are not sufficiently benefiting from the PRC's economic development. As a result, under current President
Hu Jintao and Premier
Wen Jiabao, the PRC has initiated policies to address these issues of equitable distribution of resources, but the outcome remains to be seen.
[21] For much of the PRC's population,
living standards have seen extremely large improvements, and freedom continues to expand, but political controls remain tight.
[
edit] Politics
Main article:
Politics of the People's Republic of ChinaSee also:
Government of the People's Republic of China,
Chinese nationalism,
Propaganda in the People's Republic of China,
Chinese law,
Politics of the Republic of China,
Neoconservatism in China,
Politics of Hong Kong, and
Politics of MacauThe
Great Hall of the People, where the
National People's Congress convenes.
The PRC is regarded by many
political scientists as one of the last five
Communist states (along with
Vietnam,
North Korea,
Laos and
Cuba),
[22][23][24] but simple characterizations of PRC's
political structure since the 1980s are no longer possible.
[25] The PRC government has been variously described as
communist and
socialist, but also as
authoritarian, with heavy restrictions remaining in many areas, most notably on
the Internet,
the press,
freedom of assembly,
reproductive rights, and
freedom of religion. However, compared to its closed-door policies until the mid-1970s, the liberalization of the PRC is such that the administrative climate is much less restrictive than before, though the PRC is still far from the full-fledged
democracy practiced in most of Europe or North America, according to most observers internationally.[
who?] The PRC's incumbent President is
Hu Jintao and its
premier is
Wen Jiabao.
The country is run by the
Communist Party of China (CPC), which is guaranteed power by the Constitution.
[26] There are other political parties in the PRC, referred to in China as "democratic parties", which participate in the
People's Political Consultative Conference and the
National People's Congress. There have been some moves toward political liberalization, in that open contested elections are now held at the village and town levels,
[27][28] and that legislatures have shown some assertiveness from time to time. However, the Party retains effective control over government appointments: in the absence of meaningful opposition, the CPC wins by default most of the time. Political concerns in the PRC include lessening the growing gap between rich and poor and fighting corruption within the government leadership.
[29] The level of support that the Communist Party of China has among the PRC population in general is unclear since there are no consistently contested national elections.
[30] According to a survey conducted in Hong Kong, where a relatively high level of freedom is enjoyed, the current CPC leaders have received substantial votes of support when residents were asked to rank their favorite leaders from mainland China and Taiwan.
[31][
edit] Foreign relations
Main article:
Foreign relations of the People's Republic of ChinaHu Jintao with former
US President George W. BushThe People's Republic of China maintains diplomatic relations with most major countries in the world.
Sweden was the first western country to establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic on 9 May 1950.
[32] In 1971, the PRC replaced the
Republic of China as the sole representative of China in the
United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the
United Nations Security Council.
[33] It is considered a founding member of the UN, though the PRC was not in control of China at the time. The PRC was also a former member and leader of the
Non-Aligned Movement.
Under its interpretation of the
One-China policy, the PRC has made it a precondition to establishing diplomatic relations that the other country acknowledges its claim to
Taiwan and severs official ties with the
Republic of China government. The government opposes publicized foreign travels by former and present ROC officials promoting
Taiwan's independence, such as
Lee Teng-hui and
Chen Shui-bian, and other politically controversial figures, such as
Tenzin Gyatso, the
Dalai Lama of
Tibetan Buddhism, in an official context.
The PRC has been playing an increasing role in calling for
free trade areas and security pacts amongst its Asia-Pacific neighbors. In 2004, the PRC proposed an entirely new
East Asia Summit (EAS) framework as a forum for regional security issues that pointedly excluded the United States.
[34] The EAS, which includes
ASEAN Plus Three, India, Australia and New Zealand, held its inaugural summit in 2005. The PRC is also a founding member of the
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), with Russia and the
Central Asian republics.
Much of the current foreign policy is based on the concept of
China's peaceful rise. Conflicts with foreign countries have occurred at times in its recent history, particularly with the United States; for example, the
U.S. bombing of the Chinese embassy in
Belgrade during the
Kosovo conflict in May 1999 and the
U.S.-China spy plane incident in April 2001. Its foreign relations with many Western nations suffered for a time following the
Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, though they have since recovered. The relationship between
China and Japan has been strained at times by Japan's refusal to acknowledge its
wartime past to the satisfaction of the PRC; take for instance
revisionist comments made by prominent Japanese officials and in some
Japanese history textbooks. Another point of conflict between the two countries is the frequent visits by Japanese government officials to the
Yasukuni Shrine. However, Sino-Japanese relations have warmed considerably since
Shinzo Abe became the new Japanese Prime Minister in September 2006. A joint historical study to be completed by 2008 of WWII atrocities is being conducted by the PRC and Japan.
Equally bordering the most countries in the world alongside Russia, the PRC was in a number of
international territorial disputes. China's territorial disputes have led to localized wars in the last 50 years, including the
Sino-Indian War in 1962, the
Sino-Soviet border conflict in 1969, and the
Sino-Vietnamese War in 1979. In 2001, the PRC and Russia signed the
Sino-Russian Treaty of Friendship,
[35] which paved the way in 2004 for Russia to transfer
Yinlong Island as well as one-half of
Heixiazi to China, ending a long-standing
Sino-Russian border dispute. Other territorial disputes include islands in the
East and
South China Seas, and undefined or disputed borders with India,
Tajikistan, and
North Korea.
While accompanying a rapid economic rise, the PRC since the 1990s seeks to maintain a policy of quiet diplomacy with its neighbors. It does so by keeping economic growth steady and participating in regional organizations and cultivating bi-lateral relations in order to ease suspicion over China's burgeoning military capabilities. The PRC has started a policy of wooing African nations for trade and bilateral co-operation.
[36] There are some discussions about whether China will become a
new superpower in the
21st century, with certain commentators pointing out its economic progress, military might, very large population, and increasing international influence but others claiming it is headed for economic collapse.
[37][38][39][40][41][42][
edit] Population policy
This section may
stray from the topic of the article into the topic of another article,
Politics of the People's Republic of China.Please help
improve this section or discuss this issue on the
talk page.
Main article:
One-child policyPopulation of China from 1961-2003.
With a population of over 1.3 billion, the PRC is very concerned about its
population growth and has attempted, with mixed results,
[43] to implement a strict
family planning policy. The government's goal is
one child per family, with exceptions for ethnic minorities and flexibility in rural areas, where a family can have a second child if the first is a girl or physically disabled. The government's goal is to stabilize population growth early in the 21st century, though some projections estimate a population of anywhere ranging from 1.4 billion to 1.6 billion by 2025. Hence, the country's family planning minister has indicated that China will maintain its one-child policy until at least the year 2020.
[44]The policy is resisted, particularly in rural areas, because of the need for
agricultural labour and a traditional preference for boys (who can later serve as male
heirs). Families who breach the policy often lie during the
census.
[45] Official government policy opposes
forced sterilization or
abortion, but allegations of coercion continue as local officials, who are faced with penalties for failing to curb population growth, may resort to forced abortion or sterilization, or manipulation of census figures.
The decreasing reliability of PRC population statistics since family planning began in the late 1970s has made evaluating the effectiveness of the policy difficult.
[46] Estimates by Chinese demographers of the
average number of children for a Chinese woman vary from 1.5 to 2.0. The government is particularly concerned with the large imbalance in the
sex ratio at birth, apparently the result of a combination of traditional preference for boys and family planning pressure, which led to the ban of using
ultrasound devices for the purpose of preventing
sex-selective abortion. It has been estimated that if current trends continue, the country will have roughly 30 million more men than women by 2020.
[47][
edit] Civil rights
Main article:
Human rights in the People's Republic of ChinaThe Unknown Rebel - This famous photo, taken on 5 June 1989 by photographer
Jeff Widener, depicts a protester faced by a column of tanks during the
Tiananmen Square protests of 1989.
While economic and social controls have been greatly relaxed in China since the 1960s, political freedom is still tightly controlled by both central and local governments. The
Constitution of the People's Republic of China states that the "fundamental rights" of citizens include
freedom of speech,
freedom of the press, the
right to a fair trial,
freedom of religion,
universal suffrage, and
property rights. However, these provisions do not afford significant protection in practice against criminal prosecution by the State.
[48][49]Censorship of political speech and information is openly and routinely used to silence criticism of government and the ruling Chinese Communist Party.
[50] In particular, press control is notoriously tight:
Reporters Without Borders considers the PRC one of the least free countries in the world for the press.
[51] The government has a policy of limiting groups, organizations, and beliefs that it considers a potential threat to "social stability" and control, as was the case with the
Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. The Communist Party has had mixed success in controlling information: a very strong media control system faces very strong market forces, an increasingly educated citizenry, and cultural change that are making China more open, especially on environmental issues.
[52][53]A number of foreign governments and
NGOs routinely criticize the PRC, alleging widespread civil rights violations including systematic use of lengthy detention without trial, forced confessions, torture, mistreatment of prisoners, restrictions of freedom of speech,
assembly,
association, religion, the press, and
labor rights.
[50] China leads the world in
capital punishment, accounting for roughly 90% of total executions in 2004.
[54] Civil rights issues are one of the factors driving independence movements in
Tibet and
Xinjiang.[
citation needed] In the
Reporters Without Borders' Annual World Press Freedom Index of 2005,
[51] the PRC ranked 159 out of 167 places. Chinese journalist
He Qinglian in her 2004 book Media Control in China
[55] documents government controls on the
Internet and other media in China.
The PRC government has responded by arguing that the notion of human rights should take into account a country's present level of
economic development, and focus more on the people's rights to subsistence and development in poorer countries.
[56] The rise in the
standard of living,
literacy, and
life expectancy for the average Chinese in the last three decades is seen by the government as tangible progress made in human rights.
[57] Efforts in the past decade to combat deadly natural disasters, such as the perennial
Yangtze River floods, and work-related accidents are also portrayed in China as progress in human rights for a still largely poor country.
[56][
edit] Administrative divisions
Main article:
Administrative divisions of ChinaSee also:
List of cities in the People's Republic of China and
Names of the territories of the People's Republic of China in Simplified and Traditional ChineseThe People's Republic of China has administrative control over twenty-two
provinces and considers
Taiwan to be its twenty-third province.
[58] There are also five
autonomous regions, each with a designated minority group; four
municipalities; and two
Special Administrative Regions that enjoy considerable autonomy. The twenty-two provinces, five autonomous regions, and four municipalities can be collectively referred to as "
mainland China", a term which usually excludes Hong Kong and Macau.
Political divisions of the PRC
Provinces (省)
For a larger map,
see here.Anhui (安徽)
Fujian (福建)
Gansu (甘肃)
Guangdong (广东)
Guizhou (贵州)
Hainan (海南)
Hebei (河北)
Heilongjiang (黑龙江)
Henan (河南)
Hubei (湖北)
Hunan (湖南)
Jiangsu (江苏)
Jiangxi (江西)
Jilin (吉林)
Liaoning (辽宁)
Qinghai (青海)
Shaanxi (陕西)
Shandong (山东)
Shanxi (山西)
Sichuan (四川)
Taiwan (台湾)†
Yunnan (云南)
Zhejiang (浙江)
†Taiwan is claimed by the PRC but administered by the
Republic of ChinaAutonomous regions (自治区)
Municipalities (直辖市)
Special AdministrativeRegions (特别行政区)
Guangxi (广西壮族自治区)
Inner Mongolia (内蒙古自治区)
Ningxia (宁夏回族自治区)
Xinjiang (新疆维吾尔自治区)
Tibet (西藏自治区)
Beijing (北京市)
Chongqing (重庆市)
Shanghai (上海市)
Tianjin (天津市)
Hong Kong (香港特別行政區)
Macau (澳門特別行政區)
[
edit] Geography and climate
Main articles:
Geography of China and
Geography of the People's Republic of ChinaSee also:
Environment of China and
Water resources of the People's Republic of ChinaGrasslands of
Chengde,
Hebei,
North ChinaFarmlands in
East ChinaChina is the second largest
country in Asia by
area after Russia, and is considered the
third largest[59] in the world in respect to land and sea area. The uncertainty over size is related to (a) the validity of claims by China on territories such as
Aksai Chin and
Trans-Karakoram Tract (both territories also claimed by India), and (b) how the total size of the United States is calculated: The World Factbook gives 9,826,630 km²,
[60] and the Encyclopedia Britannica gives 9,522,055 km².
[61] A recent change in the method used by the United States to calculate its surface area adds to the confusion as to the actual size of the United States.
[62][
not in citation given] China borders 14 nations (counted clockwise from south):
Vietnam,
Laos,
Burma,
India,
Bhutan,
Nepal,
Pakistan,
[63] Afghanistan,
Tajikistan,
Kyrgyzstan,
Kazakhstan,
Russia,
Mongolia and
North Korea. Additionally the border between PRC and ROC is located in
territorial waters.
The territory of China contains a large variety of landscapes. In the east, along the shores of the
Yellow Sea and the
East China Sea, there are extensive and densely populated
alluvial plains, while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, grasslands can be seen. Southern China is dominated by hill country and low
mountain ranges. In the central-east are the
deltas of China's two major rivers, the
Yellow River and
Yangtze River (Chang Jiang). Other major rivers include the
Xi,
Mekong,
Brahmaputra and
Amur.
Tibetan Plateau in
Southwest ChinaSouth China Sea at
HainanTo the west, major mountain ranges, notably the
Himalayas, with China's highest point at the eastern half of
Mount Everest, and high
plateaus feature among the more arid landscapes such as the
Taklamakan and the
Gobi Desert.
A major issue is the continued expansion of deserts, particularly the Gobi Desert.
[64] Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of sandstorms, prolonged
drought and poor agricultural practices result in
dust storms plaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of East Asia, including
Korea and Japan. Water,
erosion, and pollution control have become important issues in China's relations with other countries.
China has some relevant environmental regulations: the 1979 Environmental Protection Law, which was largely modeled on U.S. legislation. But the environment continues to deteriorate.
[65] While the regulations are fairly stringent, they are frequently disregarded by local communities while seeking economic development. Twelve years after the law, only one Chinese city was making an effort to clean up its water discharges.
[66] This indicates that China is about twenty years behind the U.S. schedule of environmental regulation.
Lijiang river in
Guangxi.
Part of the price China is paying for increased prosperity is damage to the environment. Leading Chinese environmental campaigner
Ma Jun has warned that water pollution is one of the most serious threats facing China. According to Ma the drinking water of 300 million peasants is unsafe and water quality in one fifth of the cities is not up to standard. This makes the crisis of water shortages more pressing, with 400 out of 600 cities short of water.
[67][
edit] Military
Main article:
People's Liberation ArmyLuhu class destroyer of the
PLANWith 2.3 million active troops, the
People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the largest military in the world.
[68] The PLA consists of an
army,
navy,
air force, and strategic
nuclear force. The official announced
budget of the PLA for 2007 was $45 billion. However, the United States claims China does not report its real military spending. The
DIA estimates that the real Chinese military budget for 2007 could be anywhere from US$85 to US$125 billion.
[69]The PRC, despite possession of
nuclear weapons and delivery systems, is widely seen by military researchers both within and outside of China as having only limited
power projection capability; this is, among other things, because of the limited effectiveness of its navy. It is considered a major military
regional power and an
emerging military superpower.
[70]Much progress has been made in the last decade and the PRC continues to make efforts to modernize its military. It has purchased state-of-the-art fighter jets from Russia, such as the
Sukhoi Su-30s, and has also produced its own modern fighters, specifically the Chinese
J-10s and the
J-11s.
[71] It has also acquired and improved upon the Russian
S-300 surface-to-air missile systems, which are considered to be among the best aircraft-intercepting systems in the world,
[72] albeit Russia has since produced the new generation
S-400 Triumf, which has been reported to at least have been semi developed with China.
[73] The PRC's armored and rapid-reaction forces have been updated with enhanced electronics and targeting capabilities. In recent years, much attention has been focused on building a
navy with
blue-water capability.
[74][
edit] Economy
Main articles:
Economy of the People's Republic of China,
Economy of Hong Kong, and
Economy of MacauIn 1978,
Deng Xiaoping initiated the PRC's market-oriented reforms.
From its founding in 1949 to late 1978, the People's Republic of China was a
Soviet-style centrally
planned economy.
Private businesses and
capitalism were suppressed. To propel the country towards a modern, industrialized
communist society,
Mao Zedong instituted the
Great Leap Forward which is now widely seen – both within the PRC and outside – as a major economic failure and a great humanitarian disaster. His death and the end of the
Cultural Revolution allowed
Deng Xiaoping and the new Chinese leadership to
reform the economy and move to a market-oriented
mixed economy under one-party rule.
Collectivization of the
agriculture was dismantled and farmlands were privatized to increase productivity. A wide variety of small-scale enterprises were allowed to flourish while the government relaxed price controls and promoted foreign investment. Foreign trade was focused upon as a major vehicle of growth, which led to the creation of
Special Economic Zones (SEZs) first in
Shenzhen (near
Hong Kong) and then in other Chinese cities. Inefficient
state-owned enterprises (SOEs) were restructured by introducing western-style management system and the unprofitable ones were closed, resulting in massive job losses.
Shanghai Stock Exchange building at
Shanghai's
Pudong financial district
Nominal
GDP from 1952 to 2005.
Since economic liberalization began in 1978, the PRC's investment- and export-led
[75] economy has grown 70 times bigger
[76] and is among the fastest growing in the world.
[77] It now has the world's third largest nominal
GDP at 30 trillion yuan (US$4.4 trillion), although its
per capita income of US$3,300 is still low and puts the PRC behind roughly a hundred countries.
[78] The
primary,
secondary, and
tertiary industries contributed 11.3%, 48.6%, and 40.1% respectively to the total economy. If
PPP is taken into account, the PRC's economy is second only to the US at US$7 trillion corresponding to US$5,300 per capita.
[79] The PRC is the fourth most visited country in the world with 49.6 million inbound international visitors in 2006.
[80] It is a member of the
WTO and is the world's third largest trading power behind the US and Germany with a total international trade of US$2.18 trillion - US$1.22 trillion in exports (#2) and US$955.8 billion in imports (#3). Its
foreign exchange reserves have reached US$1.9 trillion, making it the world's largest.
[81] It is among the world's favorite destination for
FDI, attracting more than US$80 billion in 2007 alone.
[82] The PRC's success has been primarily due to manufacturing as a low-cost producer. This is attributed to a combination of cheap labor, good infrastructure, medium level of technology and skill, relatively high productivity, favorable government policy, and some say, an undervalued exchange rate. The latter has been blamed for the PRC's bulging trade surplus (US$262.7 billion in 2007)
[83] and has become a major source of dispute between the PRC and its major trading partners – the US,
EU, and Japan – despite the yuan having been de-pegged and risen in value by 20% against the
US dollar since 2005.
[84]The state still dominates in strategic "pillar" industries (such as
energy and
heavy industries), but private enterprise (30 million private businesses)
[85] now accounts for approximately 70% of China's national output, up from 1% in 1978.
[86] Its stock market in
Shanghai (SSE) is raising record amounts of
IPOs and its benchmark
Shanghai Composite index has doubled since 2005. SSE's
market capitalization reached US$3 trillion in 2007 and is the
world's fifth largest exchange. China now ranks 34th in the
Global Competitiveness Index.
[87] Twenty nine Chinese companies made the list in the 2008
Fortune Global 500.
[88] Measured on
market capitalization, 3 out of 10 of the world's most valuable companies are in China including #2-
PetroChina, #5-
China Mobile (world's most valuable telecommunications company), and #6-
Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (world's most valuable bank).
[89]Although still relatively poor by the world's standard, the PRC's rapid growth managed to
pull hundreds of millions of its people out of poverty since 1978. Today, about 10% of the Chinese population (down from 64% in 1978) live below the
poverty line of US$1 per day (
PPP) while
life expectancy has dramatically increased to 73 years. More than 90% of the population is relatively literate,
[90] compared to 20% in 1950.
[91] Urban
unemployment declined to 4 percent in China by the end of 2007 (true overall unemployment might be higher at around 10%).
[92] Its middle class population has now reached 80-150 million.
[93][94] China's retail market is worth RMB8921 billion (US$1302 billion) in 2007 and growing at 16.8% annually.
[95] It is also now the world's third biggest consumer of luxury goods with 12% of the global share.
[96]The PRC's growth has been uneven when comparing different geographic regions and rural and urban areas. The
urban-rural income gap is getting wider in the PRC with a
Gini coefficient of 46.9%. Development has also been mainly concentrated in the eastern coastal regions while the remainder of the country are left behind. To counter this, the government has promoted development in the
western,
northeastern, and
central regions of China. The economy is also highly energy-intensive and inefficient – it uses 20%-100% more energy than
OECD countries for many industrial processes.
[97] It has now become the world's second largest energy consumer behind the US
[98] but relies on
coal to supply about 70% of its energy needs.
[99] Coupled with a lax environmental regulation, this has led to a massive water and air pollution (China has 20 of the world's 30 most polluted cities).
[97] Consequently, the government has promised to use more
renewable energy with a target of 10% of total energy use by 2010 and 30% by 2050.
[100][
edit] Science and technology
Main articles:
Science and technology in the People's Republic of China and
List of Chinese inventionsWind turbines in
Xinjiang. The Dabancheng project is Asia's largest
wind farm.
After the
Sino-Soviet split, China started to develop its own
nuclear weapons and delivery systems, successfully detonating its first surface
nuclear test in 1964 at
Lop Nur. A natural outgrowth of this was a satellite launching program, which culminated in 1970 with the launching of
Dong Fang Hong I, the first Chinese satellite. This made the PRC the fifth nation to independently launch a satellite. In 1992, the
Shenzhou manned spaceflight program was authorized.
[101] After four tests,
Shenzhou 5 was launched on 15 October 2003, using a
Long March 2F launch vehicle and carrying Chinese astronaut
Yang Liwei, making the PRC the third country to put a human being into
space through its own endeavors.
[102] With the successful completion of the second manned mission,
Shenzhou 6 in October 2005, the country plans to build a
Chinese Space Station in the near future and achieve a lunar landing in the next decade.
[103]China has the world's second largest
research and development budget, and is expected to invest over $136 billion this year after growing more than 20% in the past year.
[104] The Chinese government continues to place heavy emphasis on research and development by creating greater public awareness of innovation, and reforming financial and tax systems to promote growth in cutting-edge industries. President Hu Jintao in January 2006 called for China to make the transition from a manufacturing-based economy to an innovation-based one, and this year's National People's Congress has approved large increases in research funding.
Stem cell research and
gene therapy, which some in the
Western world see as controversial, face minimal regulation in China. China has an estimated 926,000 researchers, second only to the 1.3 million in the United States.
[105]China is also actively developing its
software,
semiconductor and
energy industries, including
renewable energies such as hydro, wind and solar power.
[106] In an effort to reduce pollution from coal-burning power plants, China has been pioneering the deployment of
pebble bed nuclear reactors, which run cooler and safer, and have potential applications for the
hydrogen economy.
[107][
edit] Transportation
Main article:
Transport in the People's Republic of ChinaG030 northbound in
Hebei. There are 45,000 km (28,000 mi) of expressways in China. This is the second-longest total in the world, and half that of the United States.
Transportation in the mainland of the People's Republic of China has improved remarkably since the late 1990s as part of a government effort to link the entire nation through a series of
expressways known as the National Trunk Highway System (NTHS). The total length of expressway is 45,000 km at the end of 2006, second only to the United States.
[108][109] Most of the expressways, however, require tolls.
Private car ownership is increasing at an annual rate of 15%, although it is still uncommon because of government policies which make car ownership expensive, such as taxes and toll roads.
[110] Private highway driving is becoming more common, being almost nonexistent ten years ago.
Domestic air travel has increased significantly, but remains too expensive for most. Long distance transportation is dominated by
railways and charter bus systems. Railways are the vital carrier in China; they are monopolized by the state, divided into various railway bureaus in different regions. At the rates of demand it experiences, the system has historically been subject to overcrowding during travel seasons such as
Chunyun during the
Chinese New Year.
Cities such as
Beijing and
Shanghai both have a rapidly expanding network of
underground or
light rail systems, while several other cities also have running rapid transit. Numerous cities are also constructing subways.
Hong Kong has one of the most developed transport systems in the world. Shanghai has a
Maglev rail line connecting Shanghai's urban area to
Pudong International Airport.
See also:
Rail transport in the People's Republic of China[
edit] Demographics
Main articles:
Demographics of the People's Republic of China and
List of ethnic groups in ChinaAs of July 2006
[update], there are 1,313,973,713 people in the PRC. About 20.8% (male 145,461,833; female 128,445,739) are 14 years old or younger, 71.4% (male 482,439,115; female 455,960,489) are between 15 and 64 years old, and 7.7% (male 48,562,635; female 53,103,902) are over 65 years old. The population growth rate for 2006 is 0.59%.
[111] The PRC officially recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, the largest of which are the
Han Chinese, who constitute about 91.9% of the total population.
[112] Large ethnic minorities include the
Zhuang (16 million),
Manchu (10 million),
Hui (9 million),
Miao (8 million),
Uyghur (7 million),
Yi (7 million),
Tujia (5.75 million),
Mongols (5 million),
Tibetans (5 million),
Buyei (3 million), and
Koreans (2 million).
[113]In the past decade, China's cities expanded at an average rate of 10% annually. The country's urbanization rate increased from 17.4% to 41.8% between 1978 and 2005, a scale unprecedented in human history.
[114] Between 80 and 120 million
migrant workers work part-time in the major cities and return home to the countryside periodically with their earnings.
[115]Today, the People's Republic of China has dozens of major cities with one million or more long-term residents, including the three
global cities of
Beijing,
Hong Kong, and
Shanghai. Major cities in China play key roles in national and regional identity, culture and economics.
[
edit] The gender imbalance problem
China's State Population and Family Planning Commission reported that in 2005, there were 118.6 boys born for every 100 girls, and this trend of gender imbalance is on the increase, with some reports saying that in the rural areas it could be as high as 130 males against 100 females. Experts warn of increased prostitution, AIDS cases and violence if this trend is not reversed to some degree.
Zhai Zhenwu, professor of demography at the
People's University of China, tells ABC News that the future Chinese society could face a crisis By 2020: "(millions of) men won't be able to find wives, especially those with low income or little education. That will create social instability and increase discrimination against women."
[116][
edit] Largest cities
See also:
List of cities in the People's Republic of China and
List of cities in the People's Republic of China by populationThe figures below are from the 2008 census, and are only estimates of the population within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists when considering the total municipal populations (which includes suburban and rural populations). The large floating populations of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult;
[117] the figures below do not include the floating population, only long-term residents.
Leading Urban Centers of the People's Republic of China
ShanghaiGuangzhouHong KongNanjingDalianRankCore CityDivisionUrban Pop.Admin. RankAdmin. Pop.Regionview •
talk •
editBeijingShenzhenTianjinChongqingHarbin1
ShanghaiShanghai Municipality14,460,000
2
18,542,200
East2
BeijingBeijing Municipality12,770,000
3
17,430,000
North3
GuangzhouGuangdong Province11,810,000
4
15,000,000
South4
ShenzhenGuangdong Province11,710,000
5
13,300,000
South5
DongguanGuangdong Province7,650,000
34
7,650,000
South6
TianjinTianjin Municipality7,200,000
6
11,500,000
North7
Hong KongHong Kong SAR6,985,200
30
6,985,200
South8
WuhanHubei Province5,240,000
15
9,400,000
Central9
ShenyangLiaoning Province4,560,000
22
7,500,000
Northeast10
NanjingJiangsu Province4,150,000
27
7,100,000
East11
ChongqingChongqing Municipality4,150,000
1
31,442,300
Southwest12
ChengduSichuan Province3,860,000
8
11,300,000
Southwest13
HangzhouZhejiang Province3,410,000
29
7,000,000
East14
Xi'anShaanxi Province3,340,000
11
10,500,000
Northwest15
QingdaoShandong Province3,330,000
18
8,000,000
East16
HarbinHeilongjiang Province2,980,000
12
8,499,000
Northeast17
ChangchunJilin Province2,440,000
25
7,400,000
Northeast18
ChangshaHunan Province2,390,000
38
6,103,000
Central18
NanchangJiangxi Province2,310,000
50
4,507,000
East19
ShijiazhuangHebei Province2,270,000
14
9,500,000
NorthDalianLiaoning Province2,270,000
36
6,200,000
Northeast20
JinanShandong Province2,230,000
35
6,300,000
East2008 Census
[
edit] Education
Main article:
Education in the People's Republic of ChinaLists of miscellaneous information should be avoided. Please
relocate any relevant information into appropriate sections or articles. (March 2009)
In 1986, China set the long-term goal of providing compulsory nine-year basic education to every child. As of 1997
[update], there were 628,840 primary schools, 78,642 secondary schools and 1,020 higher education institutions in the PRC.
[118] In February 2006, the government advanced its basic education goal by pledging to provide completely free nine-year education, including textbooks and fees, in the poorer western provinces.
[119] As of 2002
[update], 90.9% (male: 95.1%; female: 86.5%) of the population over age 15 are literate.
[111] China's youth (age 15 to 24) literacy rate is 98.9% (99.2% for males and 98.5% for females) in 2000.
[120] In March 2007, China announced the decision of making education a national "strategic priority", the central budget of the national scholarships will be tripled in two years and 223.5 billion Yuan (28.65 billion US dollars) of extra funding will be allocated from the central government in the next 5 years to improve the compulsory education in rural areas.
[121]Tsinghua University is a well regarded university in
Mainland China.
The quality of
Chinese colleges and universities varies considerably across the country. The consistently top-ranked universities in mainland China are:
[122][123]Beijing:
Peking University,
Tsinghua University,
Renmin University of ChinaShanghai:
Fudan University,
Shanghai Jiao Tong UniversityTianjin:
Nankai UniversityXi'an Jiaotong University (
Xi'an)
Nanjing University (
Nanjing)
University of Science and Technology of China (
Hefei)
Zhejiang University (
Hangzhou)
Wuhan University (
Wuhan)
Sun Yat-sen University (Aka.
Zhongshan University) (
Guangzhou)
Shandong University (
Jinan)
Lanzhou University (
Lanzhou)
Many parents are highly committed to their children's education, often investing large portions of the family's income on education. Private lessons and recreational activities, such as in foreign languages or music, are popular among the middle-class families who can afford them.
[124][
edit] Public health
Main article:
Public health in the People's Republic of ChinaChina has some of the most polluted cites in the world,
[125] so respiratory problems have increased because of
widespread air pollution.
[126]The
Ministry of Health, together with its counterparts in the provincial health bureaus, oversees the health needs of the Chinese population.
[127] An emphasis on
public health and
preventative treatment characterized health policy since the early 1950s. At that time, the
party started the
Patriotic Health Campaign, which was aimed at improving
sanitation and
hygiene, as well as attacking several
diseases. This has shown major results as diseases like cholera, typhoid, and scarlet fever were nearly eradicated.
With economic reform after 1978, the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly because of better nutrition despite the disappearance, along with the People's Communes, of much of the free public health services provided in the countryside. Health care in China became largely private fee-for-service. This was widely criticised by the Islamic Hui populations of the North West, who were often unable to obtain medical support in their remote communities. By 2000, when the
World Health Organization made a large study of public health systems throughout the world,
The World Health Report 2000 Health Systems: Improving Performance the Chinese public health system ranked 144 of the 191 UN member states ranked.
The country's
life expectancy at birth jumped from about 35 years in 1949 to 73.18 years in 2008,
[128][129] and
infant mortality went down from 300 per thousand in the 1950s to about 23 per thousand in 2006.
[130][131] Malnutrition as of 2002
[update] stood at 12 percent of the population according to
United Nations FAO sources.
[132]Despite significant improvements in health and the introduction of western style medical facilities, China has several emerging
public health problems, which include respiratory problems as a result of
widespread air pollution[126] and millions of
cigarette smokers,
[133] a possible future
HIV/AIDS epidemic, and an increase in
obesity among urban youths.
[134][135] Estimates of excess deaths in China from environmental pollution (apart from smoking) are placed at 760,000 people per annum from air and water pollution (including
indoor air pollution).
[136] China's large population and close living quarters has led to some serious disease outbreaks in recent years, such as the 2003 outbreak of
SARS (a pneumonia-like disease) which has since been largely contained.
[137] Reports by the World Bank and the New York Times have claimed industrial pollution, particularly of the air, to be significant health hazards in China.
[
edit] Religion
Main article:
Religion in ChinaSee also:
Feng shuiConfucianism,
Taoism, and
Buddhism are one, a litang style painting portraying three men laughing by a river stream, 12th century,
Song Dynasty.
Men and women in xuanduan formal wear at a
Confucian ceremony in China.
China does allow a limited degree of religious freedom although the state is
officially atheist. However, official tolerance is only extended to members of state-approved religious organizations and not to those who worship underground, such as
house churches. An accurate number of religious adherents is hard to obtain due to a lack of official data, but there is general consensus that religion has been enjoying a resurgence over the past 20 years.
[138] A survey by Phil Zuckerman on
Adherents.com found that in 1998, 59% (over 700 million)
[139] of the population was
irreligious. Meanwhile, another survey in 2007 found that there are 300 million (23% of the population) believers as opposed to an official figure of 100 million.
[138]Despite the surveys' varying results, most agree that China's traditional religions –
Buddhism,
Taoism, and
Chinese folk religions – are the dominant faiths. According to a number of sources,
Buddhism in China accounts for between 660 million (~50%) and over 1 billion (~80%)
[140] while Taoists number 400 million (~30%).
[141][142] However, the number of adherents to these religions can be overcounted because one person may subscribe to one or more of these traditional beliefs simultaneously, and the difficulty in clearly differentiating Buddhism, Taoism, and Chinese folk religions. In addition, subscribing to Buddhism and Taoism is not necessarily considered religious by those who follow the philosophies in principle but stop short of subscribing to any kind of
divinity.
[143][144][145] Most Chinese Buddhists are nominal adherents because only a small proportion of the population (over 8% or over 100 million)
[146][147] may have taken the formal step of
going for refuge.
[148][149] Even then, it's still difficult to estimate accurately the number of Buddhists because they do not have congregational memberships and often do not participate in public ceremonies.
[150] Mahayana (大乘, Dacheng) and its subsets
Pure Land (Amidism),
Tiantai and
Zen are the most widely practiced denominations of Buddhism. Other forms, such as
Theravada and
Tibetan, are practiced largely by ethnic minorities along the geographic fringes of the Chinese mainland.
[151]Christianity in China was first introduced during the
Tang period in the 7th century with the arrival of
Nestorianism in 635 CE. This was followed by
Franciscan missionaries in the 13th century,
Jesuits in the 16th century, and finally
Protestants in the 19th century, during which time Christianity began to make significant foothold in China.[
citation needed] Of the minority religions,
Christianity has been particularly noted as one of the fastest growing (especially since the last 200 years) and today may number between 40 million (3%)
[152][138] and 54 million (4%)
[153] according to independent surveys, while official estimates suggested that there are only 16 million Christians.
[154]Islam in China dates to a mission in 651, eighteen years after
Muhammad's death. Muslims came to China for trade, dominating the import/export industry during the
Song Dynasty.
[155][156] They became influential in government circles, including
Zheng He,
Lan Yu and
Yeheidie'erding.
Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.
[157] The
Qing Dynasty waged war and
genocide against Muslims in the
Dungan revolt and
Panthay rebellion.
[158][159][160] The
number of Muslims in China today is estimated between 20 and 100 million
[155] by one source while most estimates figures that there are 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).
[161][162][163][164][165][166][167]There are also followers of minority religions including
Hinduism,
Dongbaism,
Bon, and a number of new religions and sects (particularly
Xiantianism).
In July 1999, the
Falun Gong spiritual practice was officially banned by the authorities,
[168] and many international organizations have criticized the
persecution of Falun Gong that has occurred since then.
[169] According to official estimates, 50–70 million Chinese practised Falun Gong in 1998.
[170] Other estimates have varied, however: Falun Gong itself claims to have as many as 100 million practitioners, while the China's Ministry of Civil Affairs later claimed that there were as few as 2 million.
[171] As there is no official membership or lists, current global numbers are unknown.
[
edit] Culture
Main articles:
Culture of the People's Republic of China,
Culture of China,
Media of the People's Republic of China, and
Music of ChinaChinese meal in
Suzhou with
rice,
shrimp,
eggplant,
fermented tofu,
vegetable stir-fry,
vegetarian duck with meat and
bambooFor centuries, opportunity for economic and social advancement in China could be provided by high performance on
Imperial examinations. The literary emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, such as the belief that
calligraphy and literati painting were higher forms of art than dancing or drama. China's traditional values were derived from various versions of
Confucianism and
conservatism. A number of more
authoritarian and
rational strains of thought have also been influential, such as
Legalism. There was often conflict between the philosophies, such as the
individualistic Song Dynasty neo-Confucians, who believed Legalism departed from the original spirit of Confucianism.
Examinations and a
culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today. In recent years, a number of
New Confucians have advocated that democratic ideals and human rights are quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian values."
[172]Beijing opera is a quintessential aspect of traditional Chinese culture and holds an important position in the world treasure of art.
[173]The first leaders of the People's Republic of China were born in the old society but were influenced by the
May Fourth Movement and reformist ideals. They sought to change some traditional aspects of Chinese culture, such as rural land tenure, sexism, and a Confucian education, while preserving others, such as the family structure and obedience to the state. Many observers believe that the period following 1949 is a continuation of traditional Chinese
dynastic history, while others say that the CPC's rule has damaged the foundations of Chinese culture, especially through political movements such as the
Cultural Revolution, where many aspects of traditional culture were labeled 'regressive and harmful' or 'vestiges of feudalism' by the regime and thus, were
destroyed. They further argue that many important aspects of traditional Chinese morals and culture, such as
Confucianism,
Chinese art, literature, and performing arts like
Beijing opera, were altered to conform to government policies and propaganda at the time.
Today, the Chinese government has accepted a great deal of traditional
Chinese culture as an integral part of Chinese society, lauding it as an important achievement of the
Chinese civilization and emphasizing it as vital to a
Chinese national identity. Since the Cultural Revolution ended, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature, music, film, fashion and architecture have seen a vigorous revival,
[174][175] and folk and variety art in particular have gained a new found respectability, and sparked interest nationally and even worldwide.
[176][
edit] Sports and recreation
Main article:
Sports in ChinaEvening pickup basketball game in a Beijing neighborhood
China has one of the
oldest sporting cultures in the world, spanning the course of several millennia. There is, in fact, evidence that a form of
football was played in China in ancient times.
[177] Besides football,
[178] some of the most popular sports in the country include
martial arts,
table tennis,
badminton,
swimming,
basketball and
snooker.
Board games such as
Go (Weiqi), and
Xiangqi (Chinese chess) and recently
chess are also commonly played and have organized competitions.
Physical fitness is widely emphasized in
Chinese culture. Morning exercises are a common activity and often one can find the elderly practicing
qigong and
tai chi chuan in parks or students doing stretches on school campuses. Young people are especially keen on
basketball, especially in urban centers with limited space and grass areas. The
NBA has a huge following among Chinese youths, with
Yao Ming being the idol of many.
[179] The
2008 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXIX Olympiad, were held in
Beijing.
Many traditional sports are also played. The popular Chinese
dragon boat racing (龙舟) occurs during the
Dragon Boat Festival. In
Inner Mongolia, sports such as
Mongolian-style wrestling and
horse racing are popular. In
Tibet,
archery and
equestrianism are a part of traditional festivals.
[180]See also:
Chinese art,
Chinese architecture,
Han Chinese clothing,
Chinese cuisine,
Traditional Chinese medicine,
Chinese literature,
Chinese mythology,
Cinema of China,
Chinese animation,
Music of China,
Public holidays in the People's Republic of China, and
List of Chinese people[
edit] See also
People's Republic of China portalChina (civilization)
Chinese governmentChinese peopleChinese Soviet RepublicZhonghua minzu[
edit] References
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^
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^ "China worried over pace of growth". BBC. Retrieved 16 April 2006.
^ Randall Hoven, 7 November 2007 American Thinker^ Cienciala, Anna(1996).
The Rise and Fall of Communist Nations 1917-1994. Retrieved 16 October 2008.
^ Juan Carlos Espinosa
Civil Society in Cuba: The logic of emergence in comparative perspective, Retrieved 16 October 2008^ Boum, Aomar (1999).
Journal of Political Ecology: Case Studies in History and Society. Retrieved 5 May 2007.
^ Constitution Of The People'S Republic Of China^ Unknown Author (2003).
"Beijingers Get Greater Poll Choices". China Daily.
http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2003-12/08/content_288018.htm. Retrieved on 2007-02-18.
^ "Does China’s Land-Tenure System Discourage Structural Adjustment?" by Bryan Lohmar and Agapi Somwaru. 1 May 2006. USDA Economic Research Service. URL accessed 3 May 2006.
^ China sounds alarm over fast-growing gap between rich and poor. Retrieved 16 April 2006.
^ Beijingers get greater poll choices^ University of Hong Kong releases the latest ratings of the top 10 political figures in Mainland China and Taiwan as well as people's appraisal of past Chinese leaders". 4 April 2006. accessed 3 May 2006.
^ China and Sweden^ Eddy Chang (22 August 2004).
Perseverance will pay off at the UN The Taipei Times.
^ Dillon, Dana and John Tkacik Jr,
"China’s Quest for Asia", Policy Review, December 2005 and January 2006, Issue No. 134. Retrieved 22 April 2006.
^ Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation (21 March 2006). Retrieved 16 April 2006.
^ http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0330/p01s01-woaf.html. Abraham McLaughlin, "A rising China counters US clout in Africa", The Christian Science Monitor, 30 March 2005 edition.
Princeton N. Lyman. "China’s Rising Role in Africa", 21 July 2005 Council of Foreign Relations. Retrieved 26 June 2007.
^ United States - International Diplomacy - Economic Trends - World Economy - Politics - New York Times^ US-China Institute :: news & features :: china as a global power^ CNN In-Depth Specials - Visions of China - Asian Superpower^ China's bad loans will ruin us all Opinion The First Post^ World Tribune — Sol Sanders: China's utterly distorted economy is a train wreck waiting to happen^ Asia Times - Asia's most knowledgable news source^ The New England Journal of Medicine, September 2005^ China to keep one-child policy - CNN.com^ http://www.usembassy-china.org.cn/sandt/fertl2b.htm, [
dead link]
^ http://www.usembassy-china.org.cn/sandt/fertl2b.htm[
dead link]
^ Loyd, Beth (12 January 2007).
"China Fears Lopsided Sex Ratio Could Spark Crisis By 2020, There Will Be 30 Million More Men than Women -- Making it Hard for a Guy to Find a Bride". ABC News.
http://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=2790469. Retrieved on 2009-03-23.
^ Will the Boat Sink the Water?: The Life of China's Peasants /
Chen Guidi and Wu Chuntao (2006)
ISBN 1586483587^ Empire of Lies: The Truth About China in the Twenty-First Century /
Guy Sorman (2008)
ISBN 1594032165^
a b China Human Rights Fact Sheet (March 1995). Retrieved 16 April 2006.
^
a b Reporters sans frontières - Annual Worldwide Press Freedom Index - 2005^ 1998 U.S. Embassy Beijing report "The Fading of Environmental Secrecy"[
dead link]. Retrieved 4 February 2007.
^ 1997 U.S. Embassy Beijing report "Environmental NGOs in China: Green is Good, But Don't Openly Oppose the Party"[
dead link]. Retrieved 4 February 2007.
^ http://www.commondreams.org/headlines05/0405-07.htm 5 April 2005. Accessed 23 June 2006. The Independent/UK article, republished.
^ Media Control in China published 2004 by Human Rights in China, New York. Revised edition 2006 published by Liming Cultural Enterprises of Taiwan
^
a b "China's Progress in Human Rights" July 2005, Accessed: 18 April 2008.
^ "China's reform and opening-up promotes human rights, says premier". 11 December 2003. Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United States. Retrieved 28 April 2006.
^ Gwillim Law (2 April 2005).
Provinces of China. Retrieved 15 April 2006.
^ "The People's Republic of China" (7 September 2005). Foreign & Commonwealth Office
^ "Population by Sex, Rate of Population Increase, Surface Area and Density" (PDF). Demographic Yearbook 2005. UN Statistics Division.
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2005/Table03.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-03-25.
^ "United States". Encyclopedia Britannica.
http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:2lOa44xXcrgJ:www.britannica.com/eb/article-9111233/United-States+United+States+Area+encyclopedia+britannica&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us. Retrieved on 2008-03-25.
^ "Rank Order — Area" (29 March 2006). CIA World Factbook.
^ China's border with Pakistan falls in the disputed
Kashmir province. The area under Pakistani-administration is claimed by India.
^ "Beijing hit by eighth sandstorm". BBC news. Retrieved 17 April 2006.
^ Ma Xiaoying; Leonard Ortalano (2002) [2000]. Environmental Regulation in China. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
^ Sinkule, Barbara J., Implementing Environmental Policy in China, Praeger Publishers, 1995,
ISBN 0-275-94980-X^ Ma, Jun, Li, Naomi (2006).
"Tackling China's Water Crisis Online". www.chinadialogue.net.
http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/392-Tackling-China-s-water-crisis-online. Retrieved on 2007-02-18.
^ China Seeks to Allay U.S. Fears as Summit Nears (2006). Retrieved 15 April 2006.
^ U.S. Department of Defense^ Nolt, James H.
Analysis: The China-Taiwan military balance. Asia Times. Retrieved 15 April 2006.
^ SinoDefence: Fighter Aircraft[
dead link]. Retrieved 15 April 2006.
^ SinoDefence: Surface-to-air Missile System[
dead link] (2006). Retrieved 15 April 2006.
^ HQ-19 (S-400) (China) - Jane's Strategic Weapon Systems^ SinoDefence: Aircraft carrier programme (2006). Retrieved 15 April 2006.
^ China must be cautious in raising consumption China Daily. Retrieved on February 8, 2009.
^ China jumps to world's No 3 economy The Australian. Retrieved on January 21, 2009.
^ GDP growth 1952-2007.
Chinability. Retrieved on 2008-10-16.
^ China's GDP grows by seven-year low of 9% in 2008 Xinhua News Agency. Retrieved on January 27, 2009.
^ World Economic Outlook Database International Monetary Fund (April 2008). Retrieved on 27 July 2008.
^ UNTWO Tourism Barometer. June 2007 issue^ China forex reserves exceed 1.9 trillion U.S. dollars Xinhua (14 October 2008). Retrieved on 21 November 2008.
^ FDI doubles despite tax concerns Ministry of Commerce of the People's Republic of China (19 February 2008). Retrieved 26 July 2008.
^ 2007 trade surplus hits new record - $262.2B ChinaDaily.com.cn (11 January 2008). Retrieved on 26 July 2008.
^ China widens yuan, non-dollar trading range to 3% (23 September 2005). Retrieved 15 April 2006.
^ Putting Democracy in China on Hold John Lee, The Center for Independent Studies. Retrieved 26 July 2008.
^ ""China Is a Private-Sector Economy"". BussinessWeek. 2005-08-22.
http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/05_34/b3948478.htm. Retrieved on 2007-03-27.
^ The Global Competitiveness Report 2007-2008 World Economic Forum. Retrieved on 26 July 2008.
^ GLOBAL 500 CNN Money.com. Retrieved on 27 July 2008.
^ Global 500 2008 Financial Times.com. Retrieved on 27 July 2008.
^ CIA - The World Fact Book^ Plafker, Ted,
China's Long — but Uneven — March to Literacy International Herald Tribune
^ Urban unemployment declines to 4% in China People's Daily Online (22 January 2008). Retrieved on 27 July 2008.
^ China’s middle class reaches 80 million Euromonitor International (25 July 2007). Retrieved on 26 July 2008.
^ China's Middle Class Leslie T. Chang, National Geographic.com (May 2008). Retrieved on 26 July 2008.
^ Total Retail Sales of Consumer Goods (2007.12) National Bureau of Statistics of China (13 March 2008). Retrieved on 21 November 2008.
^ China's hunger for luxury goods grows Jehangir S. Pocha, The Boston Globe (21 March 2006). Retrieved on 26 July 2008.
^
a b China Quick Facts The World Bank. Retrieved on 26 July 2008.
^ China - Background Energy Information Administration - U.S. government official statistics. Retrieved on 26 July 2008.
^ China's Coal Gordon Feller, ECOworld. Retrieved on 26 July 2008.
^ China have set a Renewable Energy Target of 10% of Electric Power Capacity by 2010 Thomson Reuters (11 March 2008). Retrieved on 26 July 2008.
^ China's First Man-made Satellite (2003). Ministry of Culture. Retrieved 16 April 2006.
^ Wade, Mark.
Shenzhou (6 January 2006). Retrieved 16 April 2006.
^ Wade, Mark. (30 March 2005)
Project 921-2. Retrieved 16 April 2006.
^ "China overtakes Japan on R&D" Financial Times. Retrieved 3 December 2006.
^ OECD: China to spend $136 billion on R&D[
dead link] BusinessWeek. Retrieved 3 December 2006.
^ "Blinding Science: China's Race to Innovate" Bruce Einhorn, Business Week, 31 March 2006, accessed: 16 April 2006.
^ "China leading world in next generation of nuclear plants" Robert J. Saiget. DAGA. 5 October 2004. Retrieved 16 April 2006.
^ China to build more highways in 2007^ Expressways Being Built at Frenetic Pace^ "China's Car Drive" (13 June 2005). Earlywarning.
^
a b "Chinese People" (2005). TravelBlog.
^ CIA factbook (29 March 2006). Retrieved 16 April 2006.
^ Stein, Justin J (Spring 2003).
Taking the Deliberative in China. Retrieved 16 April 2006.
^ Zhou Qun, Lin Yanhua.
China's urbanization encounters "urban disease", Chinanews.cn (中国新闻网), 11 November 2005. Retrieved 21 April 2005.
^ China 2004 Migrant Workers[
dead link], CBC Radio One, December 2004. Accessed: 21 April 2006
^ Loyd, Beth (12 Jan 2007).
"China Fears Lopsided Sex Ratio Could Spark Crisis By 2020, There Will Be 30 Million More Men than Women -- Making it Hard for a Guy to Find a Bride". ABC News.
http://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=2790469. Retrieved on 2009-03-23.
^ Francesco Sisci, "China's floating population a headache for census", The Straits Times, 22 September 2000.
^ Education (2002). Orasia co., ltd.
^ China pledges free 9-year education in rural west (21 February 2006). China Economic Net.
^ Where And Who Are The World’s Illiterates: China^ Premier Wen announces hefty educational investment (2007). Retrieved 6 March 2007.
^ 2005 Chinese University Ranking unveiled (21 February 2005). China Daily. Retrieved 16 April 2006.
^ All-around Ranking (2003). Retrieved 17 April 2006.
^ "China's graft: Tough talk, old message" by Mary Hennock. 27 September 2004. BBC News. Accessed 2 May 2006.
^ The World Bank - China Quick Facts^
a b McGregor, Richard (2007-07-02).
"750,000 a year killed by Chinese pollution".
Financial Times.
http://www.ft.com/cms/s/8f40e248-28c7-11dc-af78-000b5df10621.html. Retrieved on 2007-07-22.
^ China AIDS Survey at Yahoo. Retrieved 18 April 2006.
^ "Population Growth in China : The Basic Characteristics of China’s Demographic Transition" by Maristella Bergaglio.
^ "China". CIA World Factbook, 2008-05-16
^ CIA World Factbook. 20 April 2006. URL accessed 3 May 2006.
^ China’s Infant Mortality Rate Down. 11 September 2001. CHINA.ORG.CN. URL accessed 3 May 2006.
^ "Nutrition country profiles: China summary".
http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/nutrition/cpr-e.stm. Retrieved on 2007-07-22.
^ "Smoking 'will kill one third of young Chinese men'". 16 August 2001. Honolulu Community College. Retrieved 17 April 2006.
^ "Serving the people?". 1999. Bruce Kennedy. CNN. Retrieved 17 April 2006.
^ "Obesity Sickening China's Young Hearts" 4 August 2000. People's Daily. Retrieved 17 April 2006.
^ International Herald Tribune, Tues 31 July 2007, p16
^ "China’s latest SARS outbreak has been contained, but biosafety concerns remain". 18 May 2004.
World Health Organization. Retrieved 17 April 2006.
^
a b c BBC NEWS Asia-Pacific Survey finds 300m China believers^ Adherents.com^ Buddhists in the world^ Asia Sentinel - How Now Tao?^ Alliance of Religions and Conservation (ARC)^ Religions and Beliefs in China^ Society for Anglo Chinese Understanding (SACU)^ Index-China Chinese Philosophies and religions^ Adherents.com: Buddhism^ International Religious Freedom Report 2007 - China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)^ AskAsia - Buddhism in China^ TheAmericanForum For Global Education^ U.S. Department of States - International Religious Freedom Report 2006: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)^ Macintosh, R. Scott.
China's prosperity inspires rising spirituality (9 March 2006). Retrieved 15 April 2006.
^ "Christian population in China". guardian.co.uk.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/china/story/0,,2007690,00.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-27.
^ China Survey Reveals Fewer Christians than Some Evangelicals Want to Believe^ "Chinese government official statistics on Christian population in China". hrwf.org.
http://hrwf.org/religiousfreedom/news/2007PDF/China%202007.doc. Retrieved on 2007-08-27.
^
a b BBC Islam in China (650-present)
[1]^ "Islamic culture in China".
http://www.religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title=1656&C=1645.
^ "Looking East: The challenges and opportunities of Chinese Islam".
http://www.hsais.org/2essay0405_4.htm.
^ Levene, Mark. Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State. I.B.Tauris, 2005.
ISBN 1845110579, page 288
^ Giersch, Charles Patterson. Asian Borderlands: The Transformation of Qing China's Yunnan Frontier. Harvard University Press, 2006.
ISBN 1845110579, page 219
^ Dillon, Michael.
China’s Muslim Hui Community. Curzon, 1999.
ISBN 0700710264, page xix
^ Counting up the number of people of traditionally Muslim nationalities who were enumerated in the 1990 census gives a total of 17.6 million, 96% of whom belong to just three nationalities: Hui 8.6 million, Uyghurs 7.2 million, and Kazakhs 1.1 million. Other nationalities that are traditionally Muslim include Kyrghyz, Tajiks, Uzbeks, Tatars, Salar, Bonan, and Dongxiang. See Dru C. Gladney, "Islam in China: Accommodation or Separatism?", Paper presented at Symposium on Islam in Southeast Asia and China, Hong Kong, 2002. Available at
http://www.islamsymposium.cityu.edu.hk. The 2000 census reported a total of 20.3 million members of Muslim nationalities, of which again 96% belonged to just three groups: Hui 9.8 million, Uyghurs 8.4 million, and Kazakhs 1.25 million.
^ CIA - The World Factbook - China^ China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet)^ China Daily - NW China region eyes global Muslim market^ Muslim Media Network^ Islamtoday.com - China’s Halal Food and Muslim Commodities Festival Begins Today^ BBC Islam in China (650-present)
BBC - Religion & Ethics - Islam in China (650-present)^ Xinhua,
China Bans Falun Gong,
People's Daily, 22 July 1999
^ Mary-Anne Toy,
Underground existence for Falun Gong faithful,
The Age, July 26, 2008."The US State Department, US Congress, the United Nations and human rights groups such as Amnesty say persecution of Falun Gong practitioners in China is a continuing abuse of human rights."
^ Joseph Kahn,
"Notoriety Now for Exiled Leader of Chinese Movement", The New York Times, 27 April 1999
^ Xu Jiatun,
Cultural Revolution revisited in crackdown, Taipai Times, 8 September 1999.
^ Bary, Theodore de.
"Constructive Engagement with Asian Values"[
dead link]. Columbia University.
^ "Tour Guidebook: Beijing". China National Tourism Administration.
http://en.cnta.gov.cn.
^ "China: Traditional arts". Library of Congress - Country Studies. Accessed: 26 December 2007.
^ "China: Cultural life: The arts". Encyclopædia Britannica Online Accessed: 26 December 2007.
^ "China: Folk and Variety Arts". Library of Congress - Country Studies. Accessed: 26 December 2007.
^ Origins of the Great Game. 2000. Athleticscholarships.net. Retrieved 23 April 2006.
^ ESPN Soccernet. 2002. ESPN Soccernet. Retrieved 26 January 2006.
^ Beech, Hannah (2003). "
Yao Ming". Asian Heros (Time Magazine).
http://www.time.com/time/asia/2003/heroes/yao_ming.html. Retrieved on 2007-03-30.
^ Qinfa, Ye.
Sports History of China. About.com. Retrieved 21 April 2006.
[
edit] Further reading
Find more about China on Wikipedia's
sister projects:
Definitions from Wiktionary
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Images and media from Commons
News stories from Wikinews
Learning resources from Wikiversity
Lynch, Michael (1998). People’s Republic of China 1949–90.
Trafalgar Square Publishing.
ISBN 0-340-68853-X.
Murphey, Rhoads (1996). East Asia: A New History.
University of Michigan Press.
ISBN 0-321-07801-2.
Sang Ye (2006). China Candid: The People on the People's Republic.
University of California Press.
ISBN 0-520-24514-8.
Selden, Mark (1979). The People's Republic of China: Documentary History of Revolutionary Change. New York: Monthly Review Press.
ISBN 0-853-45532-5.
Terrill, Ross (2003). The New Chinese Empire, And What It Means For The United States. New York: Basic Books.
ISBN 0-465-08412-5.
Thurston, Anne F. (1994). China Bound: A Guide to Academic Life and Work in the PRC. Washington:
National Academies Press.
ISBN 0-309-04932-6.
Farah, Paolo, Five Years of China’s WTO Membership. EU and US Perspectives on China’s Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism, Legal Issues of Economic Integration, Kluwer Law International, Volume 33, Number 3, pp. 263–304, 2006.
Abstract.
Heilig, Gerhard K., China Bibliography - Online. 2006, 2007.
[2].
[
edit] External links
Overviews
People's Daily: China at a GlanceBBC News — Country Profile: ChinaChina entry at
The World Factbook"Rethinking ‘Capitalist Restoration’ in China" by Yiching Wu
Documentaries
"China on the Rise" PBS Online NewsHour. October 2005.
China Rises a documentary co-produced by The New York Times, Discovery Times, CBC, ZDF, France 5 and S4C. 9 April 2006.
China in the Red, 1998–2001. PBS Frontline.
China From the Inside A documentary series co-produced by KQED Public Television and Granada Television.
Government
The Central People's Government of People's Republic of China (English)China's Official Gateway for News & Information (English)Studies
Assertive Pragmatism: China's Economic Rise and Its Impact on Chinese Foreign Policy - analysis by Minxin Pei, IFRI Proliferation Papers n°15, 2006
The Dragon's Dawn: China as a Rising Imperial Power 11 February 2005.
History of The People's Republic of China Timeline of Key Events since 1949.
Media, advertising, and urban life in China.China's Neoliberal Dynasty[
dead link] by Peter Kwong, originally published in
The Nation 2 October 2006.
Travel
China travel guide from
WikitravelMaps
Google Maps - ChinaGoogle Maps - China Interesting locations
Wikimedia Atlas of the People's Republic of ChinaMisc(Internet video)
Internet video:Accompanying the growth of industry is an increase in pollution and toxic waste that threatens the livelihood and health of people in rural fishing and farming communities.[
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Canada ·
Chile ·
People's Republic of China ·
Hong Kong, China ·
Indonesia ·
Japan ·
Republic of Korea ·
Malaysia ·
Mexico ·
New Zealand ·
Papua New Guinea ·
Peru ·
Philippines ·
Russian Federation ·
Singapore ·
Chinese Taipei * ·
Thailand ·
United States ·
Vietnam*Designation of the
Republic of China[
show]
v •
d •
eShanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)Member States
China ·
Kazakhstan ·
Kyrgyzstan ·
Russia ·
Tajikistan ·
UzbekistanObserver States
India ·
Iran ·
Mongolia ·
PakistanGuests
Afghanistan ·
ASEAN ·
CISWorking Languages
Chinese ·
Russian[
show]
v •
d •
eGroup of Eight Plus Five (G8+5)G8 Canada ·
France ·
Germany ·
Italy ·
Japan ·
Russia ·
United Kingdom ·
United States+5
Brazil ·
China ·
India ·
Mexico ·
South Africa[
show]
v •
d •
eBRIC countries
Brazil ·
People's Republic of China ·
India ·
Russia[
show]
v •
d •
eStates belonging to the
Like Minded Group of states at the
United NationsMembers
Algeria ·
Bangladesh ·
Belarus ·
Bhutan ·
People's Republic of China ·
Cuba ·
Egypt ·
India ·
Indonesia ·
Iran Malaysia ·
Myanmar ·
Nepal ·
Pakistan ·
Philippines ·
Sri Lanka ·
Sudan ·
Syria ·
Vietnam ·
ZimbabweCoordinates:
35°00′N 105°00′E / 35°N 105°E / 35; 105Retrieved from "
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China"
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